An authoritative, peer-reviewed engineering theory and numerical simulation platform for all-solid-state micro-batteries. Explores coupled 1D finite-volume solid diffusion, substrate-constrained biaxial stress fields, Butler-Volmer interface charge transfer kinetics, glassy solid electrolyte transport, and Stefan moving boundary dynamics.
Thin-Film Solid-State Batteries (TFSSB) represent the pinnacle of micro-power sources for IoT nodes, medical implants, smart sensor packages, and on-chip electronics. Unlike conventional porous liquid-electrolyte cells, TFSSBs feature fully dense, planar solid-state films deposited sequentially on a rigid supporting substrate.
The absence of volatile liquid solvents enables superior thermal stability and cycle life. However, because all constituents are rigid solids with microscopic direct contacts, cell performance is intrinsically governed by strong multi-physics interactions between chemical concentration, mechanical stress, and interfacial potential drops.
Electrochemical battery models differ fundamentally in their physical domain discretization, phase coexistence, and interfacial reaction distribution. The table below delineates the exact theoretical and mathematical distinctions between the TFSSB 1D Chemo-Mechanical model, the Newman P2D porous continuum model, and the Single Particle Model with Electrolyte (SPMe):
| Physical Aspect | Newman P2D Model (Doyle-Fuller-Newman 1993) | SPMe Model (Marquis 2019 / Chen 2020) | TFSSB 1D Continuum Model (Danilov 2011, Fabre 2012) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Domain & Structure | Porous Two-Phase Continuum: Liquid electrolyte permeates porous composite electrode ($\epsilon > 0$, binder, carbon black). | Single Representative Spherical Particle: Volume-averaged lumped particle + 1D macro electrolyte. | 100% Dense Planar Solid Slab: Zero porosity ($\epsilon = 0$), no liquid electrolyte, direct planar solid-solid contact. |
| Spatial Coordinate Dimensions | Pseudo-2D ($x, r$): Macro $x \in [0, L_{\text{cell}}]$ across stack + micro particle radial coordinate $r \in [0, R_p]$. | Reduced 1D+1D ($r, x$): Radial diffusion in one spherical particle per electrode + macro electrolyte profile. | Direct 1D Planar ($x$): Single macro spatial coordinate $x \in [0, L_{\text{pos}}]$ along the dense film thickness. No particle $r$ coordinate. |
| Electrochemical Reaction Zone | Volumetrically Distributed ($j(x,t)\ [\text{A/m}^3]$): Reactions occur across active surface area density $a = 3\epsilon_s/R_p$ throughout electrode thickness $L$. | Lumped Surface Reaction ($j_{\text{avg}}\ [\text{A/m}^2]$): Spatially averaged reaction current over single particle surface. | Single 2D Planar Interface ($j_{\text{int}}\ [\text{A/m}^2]$): Reaction is strictly localized at the single boundary point $x = L_{\text{pos}}$. Zero reaction inside cathode bulk. |
| Electrolyte Ion Transport & Transference ($t_+$) | Binary Liquid Electrolyte ($t_+ \approx 0.38 < 1$): Coupled diffusion-migration with Bruggeman tortuosity $\epsilon^\beta$. Severe concentration polarization ($\Delta\phi_{\text{conc}}$) and salt depletion. | Approximated Binary Electrolyte: Volume-averaged polynomial/asymptotic potential and concentration drop. | Single-Ion Solid Conductor ($\text{LiPON}, t_+ = 1.0$): Immobile anion lattice. Zero concentration polarization ($\Delta\phi_{\text{conc}} = 0$). Pure ohmic resistance drop $V_{\text{se}} = I R_{\text{se}}$. |
| Solid Diffusion & Mobility Assumptions | Fickian diffusion in spherical coordinates: $\frac{\partial c_s}{\partial t} = \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r^2 D_s \frac{\partial c_s}{\partial r}\right)$. Typically assumes constant $D_s$. | Polynomial approximation or single-particle ODE for average & surface concentrations ($c_{s,\text{surf}}, c_{s,\text{avg}}$). | Non-linear FVM diffusion with concentration-dependent $D(c)$, stress-gradient drift ($\nabla\sigma_h$), and Hart-Mortlock grain boundary homogenization. |
| Chemo-Mechanical Confinement | Generally neglected, or modeled as unconstrained hydrostatic stress in free-floating spherical particles. | Neglected in standard formulation. | Rigid Substrate-Induced Plane-Strain: Generates gigapascal-level equibiaxial stress $\sigma(x,t)$, 1.5 GPa plastic yield plateau, and thermodynamic OCV shift $\Delta U = \Omega \sigma_h / F$. |
| Anode Phase Boundary Dynamics | Intercalation into porous graphite host particles; fixed spatial boundary coordinates. | Intercalation into lumped graphite particle. | Stefan Moving Phase Boundary: Metallic lithium deposition and dissolution dynamically shifts the physical thickness $dL_{\text{Li}}/dt = -I \Omega_{\text{Li}} / (F A)$. |
In liquid-electrolyte batteries (Newman P2D), the electrode is a porous matrix composite where liquid electrolyte floods the interstitial void spaces between active material spherical grains. Ions can travel through the liquid phase deep into the electrode before undergoing charge transfer. Consequently, the reaction is distributed throughout the entire electrode volume.
In stark contrast, a Thin-Film Solid-State Battery (TFSSB) consists of a fully dense, pore-free solid film ($\epsilon = 0$). The solid electrolyte (LiPON) does not penetrate into the cathode; it contacts the cathode exclusively at a single, planar 2D solid-solid hetero-interface ($x = L_{\text{pos}}$).
Because solid electrolyte cannot enter the dense cathode interior, no electrochemical charge-transfer reaction can occur inside the bulk of the cathode film ($0 \le x < L_{\text{pos}}$). Inside the cathode, transport is purely solid-state chemical diffusion of neutral lithium (accompanied by electronic conduction).
The Butler-Volmer reaction occurs exclusively at the single planar boundary point $x = L_{\text{pos}}$:
Liquid electrolytes contain mobile solvated $\text{Li}^+$ cations and counter-anions (e.g. $\text{PF}_6^-$) with a lithium transference number $t_+ \approx 0.38$. Under high current, anions accumulate at the positive electrode while cations deplete, establishing severe concentration polarization: $$\Delta \phi_{\text{conc}} = \frac{2 R T}{F} (1 - t_+) \ln\left(\frac{c_{e,\text{anode}}}{c_{e,\text{cathode}}}\right)$$ In LiPON solid electrolytes (Bates et al. 2000), the glassy phosphate-oxynitride polyanion network is rigid and immobile. Only $\text{Li}^+$ ions hop between vacant coordination sites, enforcing an exact single-ion transference number $t_+ = 1.0$. Because $\nabla c_{\text{anion}} = 0$, concentration polarization is fundamentally zero ($\Delta \phi_{\text{conc}} \equiv 0$), and electrolyte loss reduces purely to linear Ohm's law: $V_{\text{se}} = I \cdot R_{\text{se}}$.
The treatment of solid diffusion within thin-film intercalation cathodes has evolved across major publications:
Lithium transport within the dense intercalation cathode is governed by Fickian chemical diffusion combined with a thermodynamic drift flux driven by the hydrostatic stress gradient:
The 1D spatial domain extends from the cathode current collector at $x = 0$ to the solid electrolyte interface at $x = L_{\text{pos}}$:
For polycrystalline thin films with average grain size $d_{\text{grain}}$ and grain boundary width $\delta_{\text{gb}}$, the effective diffusivity accounts for fast grain boundary diffusion paths:
When lithium intercalates into the cathode film ($c > c_0$), it induces a stress-free chemical expansion strain $\epsilon^{\text{chem}} = \frac{\Omega}{3} (c - c_0)$. Because the thin film is rigidly adhered to a thick, unyielding substrate (e.g. silicon, sapphire, alumina), in-plane strains are fully constrained ($\epsilon_{xx} = \epsilon_{yy} = 0$), while out-of-plane expansion is unconstrained ($\sigma_{zz} = 0$).
According to the Larché-Cahn thermodynamic framework for solid solutions under mechanical stress, compressive stress increases the local chemical potential of lithium ($\mu = \mu_0 - \Omega \sigma_h$). Because the electrode equilibrium potential $U_{\text{eq}}$ is related to the chemical potential by $U_{\text{eq}} = -(\mu_{\text{Li}} - \mu_{\text{Li}}^{\text{ref}})/F$, this creates an explicit thermodynamic voltage shift:
Electrochemical charge transfer across the cathode / solid electrolyte and anode / solid electrolyte interfaces follows non-linear Butler-Volmer kinetics:
For symmetric charge transfer ($\alpha_a = \alpha_c = 0.5$), the overpotential $\eta$ is resolved analytically in closed form via the inverse hyperbolic sine:
At the negative electrode, metallic lithium is stripped during discharge and plated during charge. The instantaneous displacement velocity of the phase boundary is governed by Faraday's law:
• Discharge ($I > 0$): $\frac{dL_{\text{Li}}}{dt} < 0 \implies$ Lithium thickness decreases as it dissolves into the cell.
• Charge ($I < 0$): $\frac{dL_{\text{Li}}}{dt} > 0 \implies$ Lithium thickness grows via electrodeposition.
The instantaneous terminal voltage $V_{\text{cell}}(t)$ under an applied current $I$ is synthesized by superimposing thermodynamic potentials, interfacial activation overpotentials, electrolyte ohmic drop, and contact resistance:
The frequency-dependent small-signal impedance $Z_{\text{cell}}(\omega)$ of the all-solid-state cell is formulated as a series combination of bulk ohmic transport, charge-transfer interfaces, and finite-length solid diffusion:
The finite-length transmissive Warburg impedance $Z_W(\omega)$ models 1D solid-state diffusion across the finite cathode thickness $L_{\text{pos}}$:
Kinetic and transport properties scale with operating temperature according to Arrhenius relationships:
When the thermal ODE option is enabled, internal cell temperature evolves dynamically balancing Joule dissipation against convective heat dissipation to the ambient:
The 1D spatial transport PDE is discretized using a conservative Finite Volume Method (FVM) with an Implicit Euler time integration scheme. The resulting tridiagonal algebraic system is solved using the Thomas Algorithm (TDMA) in $O(N)$ computational complexity:
LiPON is treated as an ideal single-ion solid conductor ($t_+ = 1.0$). Anion migration and liquid-like concentration polarization gradients in the electrolyte are negligible.
Biaxial stress formulations assume rigid substrate adhesion away from free edges. Delamination, interfacial shear debonding, and edge singularity fields are neglected.
Lithium metal deposition is modeled as an ideal planar moving interface. Localized 3D dendritic filament penetration and void condensation are outside the 1D continuum domain.
| Authors & Year | Publication Title | Journal & DOI Citation | Model Contribution & Parameter Validation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Danilov, Niessen & Notten (2011) | Modeling all-solid-state Li-ion batteries |
J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 (3) A215–A222
doi:10.1149/1.3521414 |
Primary baseline for 1D LCO / LiPON / Li transport equations, rate-capability parameterization, and 0.5C–5C discharge verification. |
| Sethuraman et al. (2010) | In Situ Measurements of Stress-Potential Coupling in Lithiated Silicon |
J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (11) A1253–A1261
doi:10.1149/1.3486163 |
Experimental and thermodynamic foundation for substrate-constrained biaxial stress, 1.5 GPa plastic yield plateau, and OCV shift $\Delta U = \Omega \sigma_h / F$. |
| Fabre et al. (2012) | Charge/Discharge Simulation of an All-Solid-State Thin-Film Battery Using a 1D Model |
J. Electrochem. Soc. 159 (2) A104–A115
doi:10.1149/2.041202jes |
GITT/EIS-calibrated concentration-dependent chemical diffusion $D(c)$ and ordering phase-transition plateau in dense LiCoO₂ thin films. |
| Bates et al. (2000) | Thin-film lithium and lithium-ion batteries |
Solid State Ionics 135 (1-4) 33–45
doi:10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00327-1 |
Pioneering architectural parameters for amorphous LiPON solid electrolyte film and lithium metal interfacial dynamics. |
| Hart (1957) & Mortlock (1960) | On the role of dislocations in bulk diffusion / Apparent diffusion in polycrystals |
Acta Metallurgica 5 (10) 597 & 8 (2) 132
doi:10.1016/0001-6160(57)90127-X |
Hart-Mortlock grain boundary diffusion homogenization rule: $D_{\text{eff}} = (1 - g)D_{\text{bulk}} + g D_{\text{gb}}$. |
Instant one-click loading of verified literature models:
• LCO / LiPON / Li (Danilov 2011): Standard microbattery baseline.
• a-Si / LiPON / Li (Sethuraman 2010): High-strain thin film with 1.5 GPa plastic yield plateau.
• LCO / LiPON / LTO: Zero-strain baseline without volume expansion.
Simulate and compare multiple C-rates (0.1C to 10C) simultaneously. Multi-plot overlays enable instant rate-capability evaluation and overpotential breakdown.
Investigate operation across extreme temperatures (198 K / -75 °C to 353 K / 80 °C). Activate the Lumped Thermal ODE to observe real-time Joule dissipation.
Switch between dedicated engineering views:
• Voltage Curves & 4-Point Stack Potentials
• 1D Spatial Profiles ($c(x)$, $\sigma(x)$) with Time Playback
• Chemo-Mechanics Stress Evolution
• Stefan Moving Phase Boundary
• EIS Nyquist & Bode Impedance
• Overpotential Loss Breakdown
• Temperature Evolution